Cyberlink_Powerdirector_7_Trial_Activation_Pack > http://urlin.us/3jwx5. Jul 31, 2011. Specification: Cyberlink PowerDirector 8 Ultra: Platforms: Windows XP,Windows Vista (32 bit),Windows 7 (32 bit),Windows Vista (64 bit),Windows 7 (64 bit); Version: 8.0.2220; Licence: Trial Software; Developer: CyberLink; Date Added: Jul 31, 2011. Using 40 years of experience to build the best geodesic domes Cyberlink powerdirector 7 activation pack free. A Natural Spaces Dome is uniquely designed for extremely. Download CyberLink PowerDirector 9 Free. What's Required in Version 9 of CyberLink PowerDirector. Microsoft Windows 7, Vista or XP (Windows XP Service Pack 2 is required for HDV capture. What's New in Version 9 of CyberLink PowerDirector. Turbo-charge HD video editing speed with world's first 64-bit consumer. Windows 7 trial activation pack; Activation. 7556 downloads at 8568 kb/s oem activation pack for cyberlink powerdirector 7 Torrent 9685 downloads at 8565 kb/s. CyberLink PowerDirector 12 takes video creations to a new level. The MultiCam designer supports up to 4 cameras, allowing to arrange footage that are simultaneously captured with multiple devices. Also featuring Theme Designer enables users to generate impeccable 3D animated slideshow videos with their videos and photos. Version LE Limitations: • PowerDirector 12 LE supports basic video editing including cut, trim, mix and edit subtitles; • Does not support Blu-ray, 3D, AVCHD, MPEG-1, MPEG-2, MKV, FLV & 4K. #23 On Windows 7 when I run the installer it opens a black download window but then immediately crashes with a 'Stopped Working' window. On Cyberlink's web site I found references to PD12 installer crashing due to a runtime library but this is not the same error. It is worth noting that this has been the case with every Cyberlink installer that has been offered at GOTD for me. I wish I had some idea what the problem was so I could try the software. PowerDVD came with my BluRay drive and has been cool for watching 3D BluRays. I'd like to check out their other offerings. Since I'm not having issues with any other softwares (and I have many) I don't really know what I could do as I don't want to mess anything else up in trying. I have been trying all day with no success and the giveaway is nearly over. I had no problem getting an activation number through the process but I can't install the software.:(. On Windows 7 when I run the installer it opens a black download window but then immediately crashes with a 'Stopped Working' window. On Cyberlink's web site I found references to PD12 installer crashing due to a runtime library but this is not the same error. It is worth noting that this has been the case with every Cyberlink installer that has been offered at GOTD for me. I wish I had some idea what the problem was so I could try the software. PowerDVD came with my BluRay drive and has been cool for watching 3D BluRays. I'd like to check out their other offerings. Since I'm not having issues with any other softwares (and I have many) I don't really know what I could do as I don't want to mess anything else up in trying. I have been trying all day with no success and the giveaway is nearly over. I had no problem getting an activation number through the process but I can't install the software.:(|. #22 I agree with the comments that this version is very limited. It does not give you a taste of the more full featured version which has been number 1 in the top ten video editors for a few years by a site that lists the top 10 of various software. Goodle 'top 10 video editors' and you will find it but hey only review the full featured Cyberlink DVD Director. I feel if your going to promote your product then you need to include all the features otherwise it's no more than any other basic video editor. I agree with the comments that this version is very limited. It does not give you a taste of the more full featured version which has been number 1 in the top ten video editors for a few years by a site that lists the top 10 of various software. Goodle 'top 10 video editors' and you will find it but hey only review the full featured Cyberlink DVD Director. I feel if your going to promote your product then you need to include all the features otherwise it's no more than any other basic video editor.|. #14 I don't as a rule like Cyberlink software with the exception of their player, PowerDVD, which is what the company originally made its name with, back when anything DVD in Windows was new. I have to say PowerDirector 12 LE isn't bad for a more-or-less entry or home version video editor, though the installation, like all the other Cyberlink software I've checked out, is a bit atrocious, with ~3k new registry entries. As an older version, & a LE at that, I can forgive the installation of old Microsoft C/C++ runtime files, but make sure you check Windows Update afterward. I wouldn't expect that older runtime install with the current version if you bought it, though the number of registry entries is likely to climb as that paid version should include encoders missing due to the LE. From time to time Cyberlink software is on sale at a good price through Amazon, Frys, &/or Newegg, though you have to watch out as all 3 have been known to sell older versions without telling you that something newer just came out. In terms of value, the advertised price going through today's GOTD [in the preferences dialog] is $50 for PD 13 Ultra -- I've seen Nero 2015 Platinum on sale for less than $30 maybe 1/2 dozen times in the last 3-4 months. In terms of features & capabilities I'd give Nero the edge. Personally I like the Sony video software the best, but haven't seen a lot of sales on it for the past several months. While I'm not a fan myself, till 9/8 Amazon is running a special on Pinnacle software, & some folks do like it. And of course there's always Adobe -- their Premiere Elements is always popular & frequently on sale, especially bundled with Photoshop Elements. Some feel that the free version of Davinci Resolve [v.11, or the 12 Public Beta] is the most professional video software you can get for free, though it works a bit differently so you'll have to invest some time in learning it. Select Video Editors [there's actually a few categories of editors] on the software page at videohelp.com & you can see a fairly decent overview of what's available, along with user ratings & comments. There you'll find apps like Shotcut, a free, open source editor that's in constant, if early development. Back to Power Director 12 LE, you register for a key, getting an email with the key & a download link -- the key is also shown on the web page. The initial download is a downloader app, that lets you decide where you want the download stored, & if you want to run the installation immediately or not. The actual download comes in at ~630MB. When you start the app it lets you choose the aspect ratio & whether to start the Easy or Full Editor, or the Slideshow app. The full editor starts in Timeline mode, but you can switch to Storyboard if you prefer. With Storyboard each clip is a block that you can arrange, whereas with the Timeline you see the clips stretched out, so you can better work with the multiple tracks -- you start out with 2 audio/video tracks but can add more, & there are also tracks for things like FX. Imported media [video etc.] appears in a media browser window that's part of the overall PD window -- along the left you can select other things to view like FX -- there's also a dropdown box where you can select what's shown in a Window, e.g. Downloads, which if you click it takes you to a Cyberlink site where you can download thousands from the look of it. Basically you find what you want in that window & drag it to the timeline or storyboard. As far as importing media files go, there are so many formats & subformats out there [from all the different cameras etc.], about the only way to see if you're covered is to either Google or try it. It will import AVC Blu-Ray video [not DTS audio], & probably most common video formats, but export is a bit limited to DV avi & AVC/H.264. It's a shame that avi output is crippled with restricted output settings -- otherwise you could render your video to a lossless avi file & do your encoding with whatever you wanted, like x265. Cyberlink advertises PD's speed encoding -- they were pioneers in having your GPU assist encoding, so you'll probably find it's pretty fast. DO check your output quality however if you use hardware acceleration, because it can have a negative impact. I don't as a rule like Cyberlink software with the exception of their player, PowerDVD, which is what the company originally made its name with, back when anything DVD in Windows was new. I have to say PowerDirector 12 LE isn't bad for a more-or-less entry or home version video editor, though the installation, like all the other Cyberlink software I've checked out, is a bit atrocious, with ~3k new registry entries. As an older version, & a LE at that, I can forgive the installation of old Microsoft C/C++ runtime files, but make sure you check Windows Update afterward. I wouldn't expect that older runtime install with the current version if you bought it, though the number of registry entries is likely to climb as that paid version should include encoders missing due to the LE. From time to time Cyberlink software is on sale at a good price through Amazon, Frys, &/or Newegg, though you have to watch out as all 3 have been known to sell older versions without telling you that something newer just came out. In terms of value, the advertised price going through today's GOTD [in the preferences dialog] is $50 for PD 13 Ultra -- I've seen Nero 2015 Platinum on sale for less than $30 maybe 1/2 dozen times in the last 3-4 months. In terms of features & capabilities I'd give Nero the edge. Personally I like the Sony video software the best, but haven't seen a lot of sales on it for the past several months. While I'm not a fan myself, till 9/8 Amazon is running a special on Pinnacle software, & some folks do like it. And of course there's always Adobe -- their Premiere Elements is always popular & frequently on sale, especially bundled with Photoshop Elements. Some feel that the free version of Davinci Resolve [v.11, or the 12 Public Beta] is the most professional video software you can get for free, though it works a bit differently so you'll have to invest some time in learning it. Select Video Editors [there's actually a few categories of editors] on the software page at videohelp.com & you can see a fairly decent overview of what's available, along with user ratings & comments. There you'll find apps like Shotcut, a free, open source editor that's in constant, if early development. Back to Power Director 12 LE, you register for a key, getting an email with the key & a download link -- the key is also shown on the web page. The initial download is a downloader app, that lets you decide where you want the download stored, & if you want to run the installation immediately or not. The actual download comes in at ~630MB. When you start the app it lets you choose the aspect ratio & whether to start the Easy or Full Editor, or the Slideshow app. The full editor starts in Timeline mode, but you can switch to Storyboard if you prefer. With Storyboard each clip is a block that you can arrange, whereas with the Timeline you see the clips stretched out, so you can better work with the multiple tracks -- you start out with 2 audio/video tracks but can add more, & there are also tracks for things like FX. Imported media [video etc.] appears in a media browser window that's part of the overall PD window -- along the left you can select other things to view like FX -- there's also a dropdown box where you can select what's shown in a Window, e.g. Downloads, which if you click it takes you to a Cyberlink site where you can download thousands from the look of it. Basically you find what you want in that window & drag it to the timeline or storyboard. As far as importing media files go, there are so many formats & subformats out there [from all the different cameras etc.], about the only way to see if you're covered is to either Google or try it. It will import AVC Blu-Ray video [not DTS audio], & probably most common video formats, but export is a bit limited to DV avi & AVC/H.264. It's a shame that avi output is crippled with restricted output settings -- otherwise you could render your video to a lossless avi file & do your encoding with whatever you wanted, like x265. Cyberlink advertises PD's speed encoding -- they were pioneers in having your GPU assist encoding, so you'll probably find it's pretty fast. DO check your output quality however if you use hardware acceleration, because it can have a negative impact.|. #11 Complicated, non-standard download and installation. (Eg, it wanted to download the first part to my 'Documents' folder. That's a first.) There were long periods of time where nothing apparent was happening, no visible download/install window, no progress bar. I could tell it was working only by the flickering of my harddrive indicator light. I was beginning to regret not turning on Time Freeze before starting so I could get out of it easily if necessary. But it did install successfully, and appears to work as promised on my Win7/64 laptop. I am not an experienced video editor, but I have worked a lot with photo and audio editing, and I like the way PowerDirector 12 LE is set up. Very intuitive from my perspective, with just enough helpful tool tips. I easily imported and started editing my first video in minutes. It automatically separates video and audio tracks, and makes it easy to add, edit and mix additional tracks. It's going to take a while to understand all of what it can do, but so far I like it. Thank you CyberLink and GOTD. Complicated, non-standard download and installation. (Eg, it wanted to download the first part to my 'Documents' folder. That's a first.) There were long periods of time where nothing apparent was happening, no visible download/install window, no progress bar. I could tell it was working only by the flickering of my harddrive indicator light. I was beginning to regret not turning on Time Freeze before starting so I could get out of it easily if necessary. But it did install successfully, and appears to work as promised on my Win7/64 laptop. I am not an experienced video editor, but I have worked a lot with photo and audio editing, and I like the way PowerDirector 12 LE is set up. Very intuitive from my perspective, with just enough helpful tool tips. I easily imported and started editing my first video in minutes. It automatically separates video and audio tracks, and makes it easy to add, edit and mix additional tracks. It's going to take a while to understand all of what it can do, but so far I like it. Thank you CyberLink and GOTD.|. #10 Don't need this so no review, but to answer the question of what is and is not included and the limitation: 'The LE version of PowerDirector 12 is fully functional, including all the editor’s features for handling multiple sound and video tracks, making cuts and transitions, and applying loads of included post-processing effects, which are expandable from the program’s official website. Also included is the MultiCam system that can be used to simultaneously capture video from up to four different sources, as well as a theme editor that lets you easily design animations and transitions in 3D. The only limitation of this edition is that it doesn’t support Blu-ray, 3D, AVCHD, MPEG-1, MPEG-2, MKV, FLV, or 4K formats. However, to easily overcome this problem, you can export your project with one of the many free format converters online.' I hope that it can be of help in choosing wether to download or not. Don't need this so no review, but to answer the question of what is and is not included and the limitation: 'The LE version of PowerDirector 12 is fully functional, including all the editor’s features for handling multiple sound and video tracks, making cuts and transitions, and applying loads of included post-processing effects, which are expandable from the program’s official website. Also included is the MultiCam system that can be used to simultaneously capture video from up to four different sources, as well as a theme editor that lets you easily design animations and transitions in 3D. The only limitation of this edition is that it doesn’t support Blu-ray, 3D, AVCHD, MPEG-1, MPEG-2, MKV, FLV, or 4K formats. However, to easily overcome this problem, you can export your project with one of the many free format converters online.' I hope that it can be of help in choosing wether to download or not.|. There are much, much more limitations in this LE version than described. I remembered it from the last time it was a gotd. I installed this program specially to see if anything has changed since february but it has nt. For instance, you can't capture anything from tv-card, camcorder, or any source that produces a video stream. There is only sound that can be captured by microphone. This program has so much limitations that a normal workflow without constantly popping up windows ' Your version of PowerDirector cannot '. Is impossible. I really don't know why Cyberlink offers this product, the popup windows will irritate a lot people. It is not even a shadow of an ultra version. There are much, much more limitations in this LE version than described. I remembered it from the last time it was a gotd. I installed this program specially to see if anything has changed since february but it has nt. For instance, you can't capture anything from tv-card, camcorder, or any source that produces a video stream. There is only sound that can be captured by microphone. This program has so much limitations that a normal workflow without constantly popping up windows ' Your version of PowerDirector cannot '. Is impossible. I really don't know why Cyberlink offers this product, the popup windows will irritate a lot people. It is not even a shadow of an ultra version.|. #9 I don't know about the issue with Win 10 pro installer, but on win 7 64, the installation process is a multi-step operation. First you download the GAOTD linked zip file. After clicking on Setup.exe and running it, you find yourself being asked to download the 'real' installation file, and this is a 614+ MB file. (I suspect that any installation problems may be related to not recognizing this second phase of the process.?) After installing from this larger file, you then go the the link indicated in the readme.txt file from GAOTD. Upon entering your name and email, you get a license key. I don't know about the issue with Win 10 pro installer, but on win 7 64, the installation process is a multi-step operation. First you download the GAOTD linked zip file. After clicking on Setup.exe and running it, you find yourself being asked to download the 'real' installation file, and this is a 614+ MB file. (I suspect that any installation problems may be related to not recognizing this second phase of the process.?) After installing from this larger file, you then go the the link indicated in the readme.txt file from GAOTD. Upon entering your name and email, you get a license key. #7 Downloaded the.zip file using the direct download link. Extracted the files from the.zip file. Right clicked on the setup.exe and selected Properties. Selected the Compatibility tab and marked the Run as Administrator checkbox. Clicked OK to close the Properties. Double clicked the setup.exe and ran the installer to load the program. THIS PROGRAM INSTALLED IN WINDOWS 10 PRO BUILD 10525 WITH NO PROBLEM. Registered with no problem. I have not tested beyond the capability to load in Windows 10. I will not be taking advantage of today's offering, solely because I have used this program for many years - I now use PowerDirector13. I have tried most other video editors (& this is much more than just a video editor), and this is the most trustworthy one I have found. The others always let me down at some point. I believe it to be a reasonably priced, extremely powerful and reliable piece of software and would thoroughly recommend it. (And, no, I am in no way connected to this company!)|. There was a few months ago Hitfilm 2 Express which has all the features you pay for addons in version 3. But still, better than Power Director. If you need compositing, try Fusion 7 And for color correction etc DaVinci Resolve (they offer free versions exceeding expectations of free compositing software) Surely it's basically you get what you pay for, but give it a go - it costs nothing.|. #3 Downloaded Giveaway of the day zip file and it ran fine on Win7 64bit. Setup runs additional downloader but that was also ok. Registered on web site only required name and email. Didn't find much difference in the interface from Power Director 11 LE but once I created a test file I was able to confirm some of the 'non-working' video modes do work and are faster. I was able to create a 1080i video in a few like AVI,WMV and MKV. These are easily converted to MP4 with another converter and the interface is one of the easiest to use for cut and pasting and cropping so I will keep it. Don't really need better than 1080i for now so I find this a good value. Downloaded Giveaway of the day zip file and it ran fine on Win7 64bit. Setup runs additional downloader but that was also ok. Registered on web site only required name and email. Didn't find much difference in the interface from Power Director 11 LE but once I created a test file I was able to confirm some of the 'non-working' video modes do work and are faster. I was able to create a 1080i video in a few like AVI,WMV and MKV. These are easily converted to MP4 with another converter and the interface is one of the easiest to use for cut and pasting and cropping so I will keep it. Don't really need better than 1080i for now so I find this a good value.|. #2 I have Windows 7 64 Bit. When I run setup I get Cyberlink Downloader has stopped working. I have Windows 7 64 Bit. When I run setup I get Cyberlink Downloader has stopped working. Same problem - this fix worked for me (also Win7, 64-bit). This problem is not limited to this program; any installer that calls Java is prone to doing this, in my case at least. 1) Extract the downloaded file to a folder of your choice (preferably one with a short path, see below) 2) Open an elevated command prompt (Start button - 'Search programs and files' -> cmd; right-click, 'run as administrator'). 3) Navigate to the folder where the files were extracted(the reason for the comment of '1' above). 4) In my case, I ran 'C: Downloads Multimedia PowerDirector12LE-uie22b>setup.exe'. 5) After my firewall allowed setup to run, everything worked fine as far as the download went. There is now a Cyberlink PowerDirector folder on my desktop, but I just let the installer run. 6) Got the key from the website as directed. 7) The install takes a lo-o-o-ng time! Several command windows open and close. 8) On program start, I pick the Easy Editor. The activation window appears. Despite the dashes between spaces for entering the key, just pasting the whole thing (dashes included) works fine. 9) After a couple of shameless ads:) the 'Magic Movie Wizard' appears. I close the program and restart. 10) More ads. Hope this helps. Same problem - this fix worked for me (also Win7, 64-bit). This problem is not limited to this program; any installer that calls Java is prone to doing this, in my case at least. 1) Extract the downloaded file to a folder of your choice (preferably one with a short path, see below) 2) Open an elevated command prompt (Start button - 'Search programs and files' -> cmd; right-click, 'run as administrator'). 3) Navigate to the folder where the files were extracted(the reason for the comment of '1' above). 4) In my case, I ran 'C: Downloads Multimedia PowerDirector12LE-uie22b>setup.exe'. 5) After my firewall allowed setup to run, everything worked fine as far as the download went. There is now a Cyberlink PowerDirector folder on my desktop, but I just let the installer run. 6) Got the key from the website as directed. 7) The install takes a lo-o-o-ng time! Several command windows open and close. 8) On program start, I pick the Easy Editor. The activation window appears. Despite the dashes between spaces for entering the key, just pasting the whole thing (dashes included) works fine. 9) After a couple of shameless ads:) the 'Magic Movie Wizard' appears. I close the program and restart. 10) More ads. Hope this helps.|. #1 I got this version for free when I purchased a Blu Ray player recorder. It was given away previously back in February of this year and does what it says on the box. Thumbs up from me. Ideal for family video editing. The program has easy to use editing tools for both a Slideshow Designer and the Editor. You can import video clips easily using the Magic Move Wizard as well as select style templates, and adjustments for background music. Results can be saved directly via the program either as a file or disc. I got this version for free when I purchased a Blu Ray player recorder. It was given away previously back in February of this year and does what it says on the box. Thumbs up from me. Ideal for family video editing. The program has easy to use editing tools for both a Slideshow Designer and the Editor. You can import video clips easily using the Magic Move Wizard as well as select style templates, and adjustments for background music. Results can be saved directly via the program either as a file or disc.|. PowerDirector 12 LE usually means restricted/crippled variant like 'Light Edition'. Doesn't show any LE variant only next versions PowerDirector 13 (Ultimate, Ultra, Deluxe). If somebody please could tell which are further LE restrictions: perhaps only save as wmv file or in lower smart phone resolution or anything else???? Enables users to generate impeccable 3D animated slideshow videos.' And 'Does not support Blu-ray, 3D, AVCHD, MPEG-1, MPEG-2, MKV, FLV & 4K' is hindering usage.' So no 3D or no 3D? And I would have preferred greatly a positive format list to an exclusion list not telling which formats are left! But without.ts (a MPEG2 variant) it's nearly useless for me anyhow. With a very slow connection I can't afford trying myself just for fun! PowerDirector 12 LE usually means restricted/crippled variant like 'Light Edition'. Doesn't show any LE variant only next versions PowerDirector 13 (Ultimate, Ultra, Deluxe). If somebody please could tell which are further LE restrictions: perhaps only save as wmv file or in lower smart phone resolution or anything else???? Enables users to generate impeccable 3D animated slideshow videos.' And 'Does not support Blu-ray, 3D, AVCHD, MPEG-1, MPEG-2, MKV, FLV & 4K' is hindering usage.' So no 3D or no 3D? And I would have preferred greatly a positive format list to an exclusion list not telling which formats are left! But without.ts (a MPEG2 variant) it's nearly useless for me anyhow. With a very slow connection I can't afford trying myself just for fun!|. Welcome to JCT Limited The Beginning JCT Limited, one of the leading manufacturer of textiles and filament yarn, is the flagship company of Thapar Group. With operations in two distinct businesses – cotton, synthetic & blended textiles and nylon filament yarn – JCT Limited is a market driven company fueled by good work ethic, values and a high standard of performance. It is this culture that has helped establish the company’s reputation as one of the finest in the country. JCT Limited was the first textile manufacturer in the country to introduce eco-friendly fabrics made of organic cotton and its textile division was the first in the industry to be accredited with an ISO 9001 certification in 1996. Over five decades, since it commenced production in 1946, the textile unit of JCT Limited has grown into one of the largest textile manufacturers in India. With integrated textile facility in Phagwara (Punjab), a daily production capacity of 63 million meters per annum, and a product range consisting of some of the finest cotton and blended fabrics, this division has made a mark both the domestic and international markets. And this has been driven by the desire to excel in every sphere of its operations - spinning, weaving and processing, as well as stringent quality control at each stage of production. The company’s other operations include Filament Yarn, JCT Limited was also the first to set up a Colour Picture Tube plant in India (manufactured by JCT Electronics Ltd. In technical collaboration with Hitachi Ltd, Japan). Its Filament Plant is one of the largest in India with a capacity of 14000 MT per annum. JCT Limited follows a balanced model for growth – corporate responsibility and contribution towards social causes such as literacy and environment, sports and sportspersons development areas important as innovations in production techniques About the Visionary Our founder Lala Karam Chand Thapar (1900 to 1963) was an ordinary man who went on to achieve extraordinary things. He was a self-made man in the true sense of the word. After his marriage, Shyamlal, a cousin who ran a coal depot in Ludhiana, introduced Sachhar to Karam Chand and in the course of their conversation, the young boy was offered a partnership, which enabled him to do business in the coal belt of Jharia, near Dhanbad in Bihar. It was a mix of luck and acumen that propelled Karam Chand into the vortex of the coal industry. Soon he moved to Calcutta, an office was rented at 9, Dalhousie Square east, where the firms of Karam Chand Thapar and Co., Karam Chand Thapar & Bros., and Shyamlal Thapar & Bros. Were established. In 1923 he made history of sorts by acquiring the rights to exploit Bird and Co.’s Sirka Coal mine in Hazaribagh. His 1936 acquisition of the Deoria Sugar Mills in the Gorakhpur District brought an associated electric supply company into his fold. After a quick succession of the sugar mills, he ventured into the business of insurance, dry ice, and refrigeration, starch and chemicals and paper. His ambition led him to acquire the Mahavir Insurance Co. Ltd., in Calcutta in 1937 In 1946 Karam Chand started textile business by starting the Jagatjit Cotton Textiles Mills Ltd. At Phagwara in the Punjab. This mill produced unfinished cloth for export to the U.K. Where it was further processed and mercerized. In early 1947 Karam Chand entrusted the planning of three other textile mills in Phagwara, Amritsar and Bhutwal to an Englishman, J.A. Meek, of Greaves Cotton and Co. Later he asked his key colleagues to make an organization chart and manual as a guide-rail for the Thapar and served notice all that Karam Chand had begun to consolidate his vast empire and bring professionalism in Thapar’s businesses. Lala Karam Chand Thapar started Ballarpur Industries limited (BILT) in 1945 as Ballarpur Paper and Straw Board Mills Limited incorporated. Lala Karam Chand Thapar started JCT Cotton Textiles Limited (JCT Limited) operations in 1946. In 1947, Greaves Cotton & Crompton Parkinson Ltd was bought by Lala Karam Chand Thapar. JCT limited setup its Filament Yarn division in 1980 in technical collaboration with Zimmer AG of West Germany. The modern high tech plant started commercial production in 1989. L l l l l l Copyright 2008, JCT Limited. All rights reserved.
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Full Browser Please follow me on twitter for more updates 'omashhour' or email me at [email protected] FULL BROWSER IS FREE FOR THE NEXT 48 HOURS!!!!!!!! ★★★★★ Featured in Gizmodo's Week's Best iPhone Apps Browsers bettered ★★★★★ Full Browser's Familiar Desktop Features New user interface and better performance. Open links in 'New Tabs' or 'Background tabs'. By tapping and holding on the link. SPEED DIAL to access your favorite websites in by just one tap, the first nine bookmarks are added automatically to the speed dial if you rearrange the bookmarks the speed dial is rearranged. SEARCH TEXT in website. Press the magnifying glass at the bottom bar and a search bar will appear above the keyboard, type in the keyword and press search to go through the results press the next and previous buttons to end search press the Done button. 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Many of these early 'stem-birds', such as, were not yet capable of fully powered flight, and many retained primitive characteristics like toothy jaws in place of beaks, and long bony tails. Birds have which are more or less developed depending on the species; the only known groups without wings are the and. Wings, which evolved from, gave birds the ability to, although further evolution has led to the loss of flight in, including,, and diverse. The and of birds are also uniquely adapted for flight. Some bird species of aquatic environments, particularly and some, have further evolved for. Some birds, especially and, are among the most; several bird species, and many pass on knowledge across generations, which is considered a form of. Many species annually great distances. Birds are social, communicating with visual signals, calls, and, and participating in such social behaviours as and hunting,, and of predators. The vast majority of bird species are (referring to social living arrangement, distinct from genetic monogamy), usually for one breeding season at a time, sometimes for years, but rarely for life. Other species have breeding systems that are (arrangement of one male with many females) or, rarely, (arrangement of one female with many males). Birds produce offspring by laying which are fertilised through. They are usually laid in a and by the parents. Most birds have an extended period of parental care after hatching. Some birds, such as, lay eggs even when not fertilised, though unfertilised eggs do not produce offspring. Many species of birds are economically important as for human consumption and raw material in manufacturing, with domesticated and undomesticated birds ( and ) being important sources of eggs, meat, and feathers., parrots, and other species are popular as pets. (bird excrement) is harvested for use as a. Birds throughout human culture. About 120–130 species have become extinct due to human activity since the 17th century, and hundreds more before then. Human activity threatens about 1,200 bird species with extinction, though efforts are underway to them. Recreational is an important part of the industry. Is often considered the oldest known true bird. The first of birds was developed by and in their 1676 volume Ornithologiae. Modified that work in 1758 to devise the system currently in use. Birds are categorised as the Aves in. Places Aves in the dinosaur. Definition Aves and a sister group, the clade, contain the only living representatives of the reptile clade. During the late 1990s, Aves was most commonly defined as all descendants of the of modern birds and. However, an earlier definition proposed by gained wide currency in the 21st century, and is used by many scientists including adherents of the system. Gauthier defined Aves to include only the of the set of modern birds. This was done by excluding most groups known only from fossils, and assigning them, instead, to the Avialae, in part to avoid the uncertainties about the placement of Archaeopteryx in relation to animals traditionally thought of as theropod dinosaurs. Gauthier identified four different definitions for the same biological name 'Aves', which is a problem. Gauthier proposed to reserve the term Aves only for the consisting of the last common ancestor of all living birds and all of its descendants, which corresponds to meaning number 4 below. He assigned other names to the other groups. Birds (including ) The birds' phylogenetic relationships to major living reptile groups. • Aves can mean those advanced with feathers (alternately ) • Aves can mean those that fly (alternately ) • Aves can mean all reptiles closer to birds than to (alternately ) • Aves can mean the last common ancestor of all the currently living birds and all of its descendants (a 'crown group', in this sense synonymous with Neornithes) Under the fourth definition Archaeopteryx is an avialan, and not a member of Aves. Gauthier's proposals have been adopted by many researchers in the field of palaeontology and bird evolution, though the exact definitions applied have been inconsistent. Avialae, initially proposed to replace the traditional fossil content of Aves, is often used synonymously with the vernacular term 'bird' by these researchers. Most researchers define Avialae as branch-based clade, though definitions vary. Many authors have used a definition similar to 'all closer to birds than to.' Avialae is also occasionally defined as an (that is, one based on physical characteristics)., who named Avialae in 1986, re-defined it in 2001 as all dinosaurs that possessed feathered used in flapping, and the birds that descended from them. Dinosaurs and the origin of birds. Is an important source of information on the early evolution of birds in the period. † † † † † † Cladogram following the results of a phylogenetic study by Cau et al., 2015. Based on fossil and biological evidence, most scientists accept that birds are a specialised subgroup of, and more specifically, they are members of, a group of theropods which includes and, among others. As scientists have discovered more theropods closely related to birds, the previously clear distinction between non-birds and birds has become blurred. Recent discoveries in the Province of northeast China, which demonstrate many small theropod, contribute to this ambiguity. The consensus view in contemporary is that the flying theropods, or, are the closest relatives of the, which include dromaeosaurids and. Together, these form a group called. Some members of this group, such as, have features which may have enabled them to glide or fly. The most basal deinonychosaurs were very small. This evidence raises the possibility that the ancestor of all paravians may have been, have been able to glide, or both. Unlike Archaeopteryx and the non-avialan feathered dinosaurs, who primarily ate meat, recent studies suggest that the first avialans were. The Archaeopteryx is well known as one of the first to be found, and it provided support for the in the late 19th century. Archaeopteryx was the first fossil to display both clearly traditional reptilian characteristics: teeth, clawed fingers, and a long, lizard-like tail, as well as wings with flight feathers similar to those of modern birds. It is not considered a direct ancestor of birds, though it is possibly closely related to the true ancestor. Early evolution. A Cretaceous bird from China that lived 125 million years ago, is the oldest known bird to have a beak. † † † † † † † † † † † † Cladogram following the results of a phylogenetic study by Cau et al., 2015. The earliest known avialan fossils come from the of China, which has been dated to the late period ( stage), about 160 million years ago. The avialan species from this time period include,, and. The well-known early avialan, Archaeopteryx, dates from slightly later Jurassic rocks (about 155 million years old) from. Many of these early avialans shared unusual anatomical features that may be ancestral to modern birds, but were later lost during bird evolution. These features include enlarged claws on the second toe which may have been held clear of the ground in life, and long feathers or 'hind wings' covering the hind limbs and feet, which may have been used in aerial maneuvering. Avialans diversified into a wide variety of forms during the. Many groups retained, such as clawed wings and teeth, though the latter were lost independently in a number of avialan groups, including modern birds (Aves). While the earliest forms, such as Archaeopteryx and, retained the long bony tails of their ancestors, the tails of more advanced avialans were shortened with the advent of the bone in the group. In the late Cretaceous, around 95 million years ago, the ancestor of all modern birds also evolved a better sense of smell. Early diversity of bird ancestors. Which lived 93 million years ago, was the first known prehistoric bird relative preserved with teeth. † † † † † † † † † † † † † Aves Mesozoic bird phylogeny simplified after Wang et al., 2015's phylogenetic analysis. The first large, diverse lineage of short-tailed avialans to evolve were the, or 'opposite birds', so named because the construction of their shoulder bones was in reverse to that of modern birds. Enantiornithes occupied a wide array of ecological niches, from sand-probing shorebirds and fish-eaters to tree-dwelling forms and seed-eaters. While they were the dominant group of avialans during the Cretaceous period, enantiornithes became extinct along with many other dinosaur groups at the end of the era. Many species of the second major avialan lineage to diversify, the (meaning 'true birds', because they include the ancestors of modern birds), were semi-aquatic and specialised in eating fish and other small aquatic organisms. Unlike the enantiornithes, which dominated land-based and arboreal habitats, most early euornithes lacked perching adaptations and seem to have included shorebird-like species, waders, and swimming and diving species. The later included the superficially -like, the, which became so well adapted to hunting fish in marine environments that they lost the ability to fly and became primarily aquatic. The early euornithes also saw the development of many traits associated with modern birds, like strongly keeled breastbones, toothless, beaked portions of their jaws (though most non-avian euornithes retained teeth in other parts of the jaws). Euornithes also included the first avialans to develop true and a fully mobile fan of tail feathers, which may have replaced the 'hind wing' as the primary mode of aerial maneuverability and braking in flight. Diversification of modern birds. See also: and Aves Other birds () Basal divergences of modern birds based on All modern birds lie within the Aves (alternately Neornithes), which has two subdivisions: the, which includes the flightless (such as the ) and the weak-flying, and the extremely diverse, containing all other birds. These two subdivisions are often given the of, although and Zusi assigned them 'cohort' rank. Depending on the viewpoint, the number of known living bird species varies anywhere from 9,800 to 10,050. The discovery of, a late Cretaceous member of the, proved that the diversification of modern birds started before the. The affinities of an earlier fossil, the possible galliform Austinornis lentus, dated to about 85 million years ago, are still too controversial to provide a fossil evidence of modern bird diversification. Most studies agree on a age for the most recent common ancestor of modern birds but estimates range from the to the latest. Similarly, there is no agreement on whether most of the early diversification of modern birds occurred before or after the. This disagreement is in part caused by a divergence in the evidence; most molecular dating studies suggests a Cretaceous radiation, while evidence points to a radiation (the so-called 'rocks' versus 'clocks' controversy). Previous attempts to reconcile molecular and fossil evidence have proved controversial, but more recent estimates, using a more comprehensive sample of fossils and a new way of calibrating, showed that while modern birds originated early in the, a pulse of diversification in all major groups occurred around the. Classification of bird orders. See also: of modern bird relationships based on Prum, R.O. (2015) with some names after Yuri, T. The range of the has expanded dramatically due to human activities. Birds live and breed in most terrestrial habitats and on all seven continents, reaching their southern extreme in the breeding colonies up to 440 kilometres (270 mi) inland in. The highest bird occurs in tropical regions. It was earlier thought that this high diversity was the result of higher rates in the tropics; however recent studies found higher speciation rates in the high latitudes that were offset by greater rates than in the tropics. Several families of birds have adapted to life both on the world's oceans and in them, with some species coming ashore only to breed and some have been recorded diving up to 300 metres (980 ft) deep. Many bird species have established breeding populations in areas to which they have been by humans. Some of these introductions have been deliberate; the, for example, has been introduced around the world as a. Others have been accidental, such as the establishment of wild in several North American cities after their escape from captivity. Some species, including, and, have far beyond their original ranges as created suitable new habitat. Anatomy and physiology. External anatomy of a bird (example: ): 1 Beak, 2 Head, 3 Iris, 4 Pupil, 5 Mantle, 6 Lesser, 7 Scapulars, 8 Median coverts, 9 Tertials, 10 Rump, 11 Primaries, 12 Vent, 13 Thigh, 14 Tibio-tarsal articulation, 15 Tarsus, 16 Foot, 17 Tibia, 18 Belly, 19 Flanks, 20 Breast, 21 Throat, 22 Wattle, 23 Eyestripe Compared with other vertebrates, birds have a that shows many unusual adaptations, mostly to facilitate. Skeletal system The skeleton consists of very lightweight bones. They have large air-filled cavities (called pneumatic cavities) which connect with the. The skull bones in adults are fused and do not show. The are large and separated by a bony. The has cervical, thoracic, lumbar and caudal regions with the number of cervical (neck) vertebrae highly variable and especially flexible, but movement is reduced in the anterior and absent in the later vertebrae. The last few are fused with the to form the. The ribs are flattened and the is keeled for the attachment of flight muscles except in the flightless bird orders. The forelimbs are modified into wings. Excretory system Like the, birds are primarily uricotelic, that is, their extract nitrogenous waste from their bloodstream and excrete it as instead of or through the ureters into the intestine. Birds do not have a or external urethral opening and (with exception of the ) uric acid is excreted along with faeces as a semisolid waste. However, birds such as hummingbirds can be facultatively ammonotelic, excreting most of the nitrogenous wastes as ammonia. They also excrete, rather than like mammals. This material, as well as the output of the intestines, emerges from the bird's. The cloaca is a multi-purpose opening: waste is expelled through it, most birds mate by, and females lay eggs from it. In addition, many species of birds regurgitate. Males within (with the exception of the ), the (with the exception of ), and in rudimentary forms in (but fully developed in ) possess a, which is never present in. The length is thought to be related to. When not copulating, it is hidden within the compartment within the cloaca, just inside the vent. The of birds is unique, with a for storage and a that contains swallowed stones for grinding food to compensate for the lack of teeth. Most birds are highly adapted for rapid digestion to aid with flight. Some migratory birds have adapted to use protein from many parts of their bodies, including protein from the intestines, as additional energy during migration. Respiratory and circulatory systems Birds have one of the most complex of all animal groups. Upon inhalation, 75% of the fresh air bypasses the lungs and flows directly into a posterior which extends from the lungs and connects with air spaces in the bones and fills them with air. The other 25% of the air goes directly into the lungs. When the bird exhales, the used air flows out of the lungs and the stored fresh air from the posterior air sac is simultaneously forced into the lungs. Thus, a bird's lungs receive a constant supply of fresh air during both inhalation and exhalation. Sound production is achieved using the, a muscular chamber incorporating multiple tympanic membranes which diverges from the lower end of the trachea; the trachea being elongated in some species, increasing the volume of vocalisations and the perception of the bird's size. In birds, the main arteries taking blood away from the heart originate from the right (or pharyngeal arch), unlike in the mammals where the left aortic arch forms this part of the. The postcava receives blood from the limbs via the renal portal system. Unlike in mammals, the circulating in birds retain their. Heart type and features. Of an avian heart. The avian circulatory system is driven by a four-chambered, myogenic heart contained in a fibrous pericardial sac. This pericardial sac is filled with a for lubrication. The heart itself is divided into a right and left half, each with an and. The atrium and ventricles of each side are separated by which prevent back flow from one chamber to the next during contraction. Being myogenic, the heart's pace is maintained by pacemaker cells found in the sinoatrial node, located on the right atrium. The uses calcium to cause a depolarising signal transduction pathway from the atrium through right and left atrioventricular bundle which communicates contraction to the ventricles. The avian heart also consists of muscular arches that are made up of thick bundles of muscular layers. Much like a mammalian heart, the avian heart is composed of, and layers. The atrium walls tend to be thinner than the ventricle walls, due to the intense ventricular contraction used to pump oxygenated blood throughout the body. Avian hearts are generally larger than mammalian hearts when compared to body mass. This adaptation allows more blood to be pumped to meet the high metabolic need associated with flight. Organisation Birds have a very efficient system for diffusing oxygen into the blood; birds have a ten times greater surface area to gas exchange volume than mammals. As a result, birds have more blood in their capillaries per unit of volume of lung than a mammal. The arteries are composed of thick elastic muscles to withstand the pressure of the ventricular constriction, and become more rigid as they move away from the heart. Blood moves through the arteries, which undergo, and into arterioles which act as a transportation system to distribute primarily oxygen as well as nutrients to all tissues of the body. As the arterioles move away from the heart and into individual organs and tissues they are further divided to increase surface area and slow blood flow. Blood travels through the arterioles and moves into the capillaries where gas exchange can occur. Capillaries are organized into capillary beds in tissues; it is here that blood exchanges oxygen for carbon dioxide waste. In the capillary beds blood flow is slowed to allow maximum diffusion of oxygen into the tissues. Once the blood has become deoxygenated it travels through venules then veins and back to the heart. Veins, unlike arteries, are thin and rigid as they do not need to withstand extreme pressure. As blood travels through the venules to the veins a funneling occurs called bringing blood back to the heart. Once the blood reaches the heart it moves first into the right atrium, then the right ventricle to be pumped through the lungs for further gas exchange of carbon dioxide waste for oxygen. Oxygenated blood then flows from the lungs through the left atrium to the left ventricle where it is pumped out to the body. The as it covers the eye of a Nervous system The is large relative to the bird's size. The most developed part of the brain is the one that controls the flight-related functions, while the coordinates movement and the controls behaviour patterns, navigation, mating and building. Most birds have a poor with notable exceptions including, and. The avian is usually highly developed. Water birds have special flexible lenses, allowing accommodation for vision in air and water. Some species also have dual. Birds are, possessing (UV) sensitive in the eye as well as green, red and blue ones. Many birds show plumage patterns in that are invisible to the human eye; some birds whose sexes appear similar to the naked eye are distinguished by the presence of ultraviolet reflective patches on their feathers. Male have an ultraviolet reflective crown patch which is displayed in courtship by posturing and raising of their nape feathers. Ultraviolet light is also used in foraging— have been shown to search for prey by detecting the UV reflective urine trail marks left on the ground by rodents. With the exception of pigeons and a few other species, the eyelids of birds are not used in blinking. Instead the eye is lubricated by the, a third eyelid that moves horizontally. The nictitating membrane also covers the eye and acts as a in many aquatic birds. The bird has a fan shaped blood supply system called the. Most birds cannot move their eyes, although there are exceptions, such as the. Birds with eyes on the sides of their heads have a wide, while birds with eyes on the front of their heads, such as owls, have and can estimate the. The avian lacks external but is covered by feathers, although in some birds, such as the, and, these feathers form tufts which resemble ears. The has a, but it is not spiral as in mammals. Defence and intraspecific combat A few species are able to use chemical defences against predators; some can eject an unpleasant against an aggressor, and some species of from have a powerful in their skin and feathers. A lack of field observations limit our knowledge, but intraspecific conflicts are known to sometimes result in injury or death. The screamers (), some jacanas (, ), the spur-winged goose ( ), the torrent duck ( ) and nine species of lapwing ( ) use a sharp spur on the wing as a weapon. The steamer ducks ( ), geese and swans ( ), the solitaire ( ), sheathbills ( ), some guans ( ) and stone curlews ( ) use a bony knob on the metacarpal to punch and hammer opponents. The jacanas and have an expanded, blade-like radius. The extinct was unique in having an elongate forelimb and massive hand which likely functioned in combat or defence as a jointed club or flail., for instance, may strike with the bony spurs and bite when defending eggs or young. Chromosomes Birds have two sexes: either. The sex of birds is determined by the, rather than by the present in. Male birds have two Z chromosomes (ZZ), and female birds have a W chromosome and a Z chromosome (WZ). In nearly all species of birds, an individual's sex is determined at fertilisation. However, one recent study demonstrated among the, for which higher temperatures during incubation resulted in a higher female-to-male. This, however, was later proven to not be the case. These birds do not exhibit temperature-dependent sex determination, but temperature-dependent sex mortality. Feathers, plumage, and scales. The plumage of the allows it to blend in with its surroundings. Feathers are a feature characteristic of birds (though also present in not currently considered to be true birds). They facilitate, provide insulation that aids in, and are used in display, camouflage, and signalling. There are several types of feathers, each serving its own set of purposes. Feathers are epidermal growths attached to the skin and arise only in specific tracts of skin called. The distribution pattern of these feather tracts (pterylosis) is used in taxonomy and systematics. The arrangement and appearance of feathers on the body, called, may vary within species by age,, and. Plumage is regularly; the standard plumage of a bird that has moulted after breeding is known as the ' ' plumage, or—in the —'basic' plumage; breeding plumages or variations of the basic plumage are known under the Humphrey-Parkes system as ' ' plumages. Moulting is annual in most species, although may have two moults a year, and large birds of prey may moult only once every few years. Moulting patterns vary across species. In passerines, are replaced one at a time with the innermost being the first. When the fifth of sixth primary is replaced, the outermost begin to drop. After the innermost tertiaries are moulted, the starting from the innermost begin to drop and this proceeds to the outer feathers (centrifugal moult). The greater primary are moulted in synchrony with the primary that they overlap. A small number of species, such as ducks and geese, lose all of their flight feathers at once, temporarily becoming flightless. As a general rule, the tail feathers are moulted and replaced starting with the innermost pair. Centripetal moults of tail feathers are however seen in the. The centrifugal moult is modified in the tail feathers of and, in that it begins with the second innermost pair of feathers and finishes with the central pair of feathers so that the bird maintains a functional climbing tail. The general pattern seen in is that the primaries are replaced outward, secondaries inward, and the tail from centre outward. Before nesting, the females of most bird species gain a bare by losing feathers close to the belly. The skin there is well supplied with blood vessels and helps the bird in incubation. Preening Feathers require maintenance and birds preen or groom them daily, spending an average of around 9% of their daily time on this. The bill is used to brush away foreign particles and to apply secretions from the; these secretions protect the feathers' flexibility and act as an, inhibiting the growth of feather-degrading. This may be supplemented with the secretions of from ants, which birds receive through a behaviour known as, to remove feather parasites. The of birds are composed of the same keratin as beaks, claws, and spurs. They are found mainly on the toes and, but may be found further up on the ankle in some birds. Most bird scales do not overlap significantly, except in the cases of and. The scales of birds are thought to be to those of reptiles and mammals. In the downstroke of flapping flight Most birds can, which distinguishes them from almost all other vertebrate classes. Flight is the primary means of locomotion for most bird species and is used for searching for food and for escaping from predators. Birds have various adaptations for flight, including a lightweight skeleton, two large flight muscles, the pectoralis (which accounts for 15% of the total mass of the bird) and the supracoracoideus, as well as a modified forelimb () that serves as an. Wing shape and size generally determine a bird's flight style and performance; many birds combine powered, flapping flight with less energy-intensive soaring flight. About 60 extant bird species are, as were many extinct birds. Flightlessness often arises in birds on isolated islands, probably due to limited resources and the absence of land predators. Though flightless, penguins use similar musculature and movements to 'fly' through the water, as do, and. Feeding adaptations in beaks are varied and often include, fruit, plants, seeds,, and various small animals, including other birds. Because birds have no teeth, their is adapted to process food items that are swallowed whole. Birds that employ many strategies to obtain food or feed on a variety of food items are called generalists, while others that concentrate time and effort on specific food items or have a single strategy to obtain food are considered specialists. Birds' feeding strategies vary by species. Many birds for insects, invertebrates, fruit, or seeds. Some hunt insects by suddenly attacking from a branch. Those species that seek are considered beneficial 'biological control agents' and their presence encouraged in programmes. Nectar feeders such as,, amongst others have specially adapted brushy tongues and in many cases bills designed to fit flowers. And with long bills probe for invertebrates; shorebirds' varied bill lengths and feeding methods result in the separation of.,, and pursue their prey underwater, using their wings or feet for propulsion, while aerial predators such as, and plunge dive after their prey., three species of, and some ducks are. And are primarily grazers. Some species, including,, and, engage in, stealing food items from other birds. Kleptoparasitism is thought to be a supplement to food obtained by hunting, rather than a significant part of any species' diet; a study of stealing from estimated that the frigatebirds stole at most 40% of their food and on average stole only 5%. Other birds are; some of these, like, are specialised carrion eaters, while others, like gulls,, or other birds of prey, are opportunists. Water and drinking Water is needed by many birds although their mode of excretion and lack of reduces the physiological demands. Some desert birds can obtain their water needs entirely from moisture in their food. They may also have other adaptations such as allowing their body temperature to rise, saving on moisture loss from evaporative cooling or panting. Seabirds can drink seawater and have inside the head that eliminate excess salt out of the nostrils. Most birds scoop water in their beaks and raise their head to let water run down the throat. Some species, especially of arid zones, belonging to the,,, and families are capable of sucking up water without the need to tilt back their heads. Some desert birds depend on water sources and are particularly well known for their daily congregations at waterholes. Nesting sandgrouse and many plovers carry water to their young by wetting their belly feathers. Some birds carry water for chicks at the nest in their crop or regurgitate it along with food. The pigeon family, flamingos and penguins have adaptations to produce a nutritive fluid called that they provide to their chicks. Feather care Feathers being critical to the survival of a bird, require maintenance. Apart from physical wear and tear, feathers face the onslaught of fungi, feather mites and. The physical condition of feathers are maintained by often with the application of secretions from the. Birds also bathe in water or dust themselves. While some birds dip into shallow water, more aerial species may make aerial dips into water and arboreal species often make use of dew or rain that collect on leaves. Birds of arid regions make use of loose soil to dust-bathe. A behaviour termed as in which the bird encourages ants to run through their plumage is also thought to help them reduce the ectoparasite load in feathers. Many species will spread out their wings and expose them to direct sunlight and this too is thought to help in reducing fungal and ectoparasitic activity that may lead to feather damage. A flock of in Many bird species migrate to take advantage of global differences of temperatures, therefore optimising availability of food sources and breeding habitat. These migrations vary among the different groups. Many landbirds,, and undertake annual long distance migrations, usually triggered by the length of daylight as well as weather conditions. These birds are characterised by a breeding season spent in the or and a non-breeding season in the regions or opposite hemisphere. Before migration, birds substantially increase body fats and reserves and reduce the size of some of their organs. Migration is highly demanding energetically, particularly as birds need to cross deserts and oceans without refuelling. Landbirds have a flight range of around 2,500 km (1,600 mi) and shorebirds can fly up to 4,000 km (2,500 mi), although the is capable of non-stop flights of up to 10,200 km (6,300 mi). Also undertake long migrations, the longest annual migration being those of, which nest in and and spend the northern summer feeding in the North Pacific off Japan, and, an annual round trip of 64,000 km (39,800 mi). Other seabirds disperse after breeding, travelling widely but having no set migration route. Nesting in the often undertake circumpolar trips between breeding seasons. The routes of satellite-tagged migrating north from. This species has the longest known non-stop migration of any species, up to 10,200 km (6,300 mi). Some bird species undertake shorter migrations, travelling only as far as is required to avoid bad weather or obtain food. Species such as the boreal are one such group and can commonly be found at a location in one year and absent the next. This type of migration is normally associated with food availability. Species may also travel shorter distances over part of their range, with individuals from higher latitudes travelling into the existing range of conspecifics; others undertake partial migrations, where only a fraction of the population, usually females and subdominant males, migrates. Partial migration can form a large percentage of the migration behaviour of birds in some regions; in Australia, surveys found that 44% of non-passerine birds and 32% of passerines were partially migratory. Is a form of short distance migration in which birds spend the breeding season at higher altitudes and move to lower ones during suboptimal conditions. It is most often triggered by temperature changes and usually occurs when also become inhospitable due to lack of food. Some species may also be nomadic, holding no fixed territory and moving according to weather and food availability. As a are overwhelmingly neither migratory nor sedentary but considered to either be dispersive, irruptive, nomadic or undertake small and irregular migrations. The ability of birds to return to precise locations across vast distances has been known for some time; in an experiment conducted in the 1950s, a released in in the United States returned to its colony in, in Wales within 13 days, a distance of 5,150 km (3,200 mi). Birds navigate during migration using a variety of methods. For migrants, the is used to navigate by day, and a stellar compass is used at night. Birds that use the sun compensate for the changing position of the sun during the day by the use of an. Orientation with the stellar compass depends on the position of the surrounding. These are backed up in some species by their ability to sense the Earth's through specialised. The startling display of the mimics a large predator. Birds using primarily visual and auditory signals. Signals can be interspecific (between species) and intraspecific (within species). Birds sometimes use plumage to assess and assert social dominance, to display breeding condition in sexually selected species, or to make threatening displays, as in the 's mimicry of a large predator to ward off and protect young chicks. Variation in plumage also allows for the identification of birds, particularly between species. Visual communication among birds may also involve ritualised displays, which have developed from non-signalling actions such as preening, the adjustments of feather position, pecking, or other behaviour. These displays may signal aggression or submission or may contribute to the formation of pair-bonds. The most elaborate displays occur during courtship, where 'dances' are often formed from complex combinations of many possible component movements; males' breeding success may depend on the quality of such displays., which are produced in the, are the major means by which birds communicate with. This communication can be very complex; some species can operate the two sides of the syrinx independently, allowing the simultaneous production of two different songs. Calls are used for a variety of purposes, including mate attraction, evaluation of potential mates, bond formation, the claiming and maintenance of territories, the identification of other individuals (such as when parents look for chicks in colonies or when mates reunite at the start of breeding season), and the warning of other birds of potential predators, sometimes with specific information about the nature of the threat. Some birds also use mechanical sounds for auditory communication. The of drive air through their feathers, drum territorially, and use tools to drum. Flocking and other associations. The most numerous species of bird, form enormous flocks—sometimes tens of thousands strong. While some birds are essentially territorial or live in small family groups, other birds may form large. The principal benefits of flocking are and increased foraging efficiency. Defence against predators is particularly important in closed habitats like forests, where is common and multiple eyes can provide a valuable early warning system. This has led to the development of many, which are usually composed of small numbers of many species; these flocks provide safety in numbers but increase potential competition for resources. Costs of flocking include bullying of socially subordinate birds by more dominant birds and the reduction of feeding efficiency in certain cases. Birds sometimes also form associations with non-avian species. Plunge-diving associate with and, which push shoaling fish towards the surface. Have a with, in which they forage together and warn each other of nearby and other predators. Many birds, like this, tuck their head into their back when sleeping The high metabolic rates of birds during the active part of the day is supplemented by rest at other times. Sleeping birds often use a type of sleep known as vigilant sleep, where periods of rest are interspersed with quick eye-opening 'peeks', allowing them to be sensitive to disturbances and enable rapid escape from threats. Are believed to be able to sleep in flight and radar observations suggest that they orient themselves to face the wind in their roosting flight. It has been suggested that there may be certain kinds of sleep which are possible even when in flight. Some birds have also demonstrated the capacity to fall into one of the brain at a time. The birds tend to exercise this ability depending upon its position relative to the outside of the flock. This may allow the eye opposite the sleeping hemisphere to remain vigilant for by viewing the outer margins of the flock. This adaptation is also known from. Is common because it lowers the and decreases the risks associated with predators. Roosting sites are often chosen with regard to thermoregulation and safety. Many sleeping birds bend their heads over their backs and tuck their in their back feathers, although others place their beaks among their breast feathers. Many birds rest on one leg, while some may pull up their legs into their feathers, especially in cold weather. Have a tendon locking mechanism that helps them hold on to the perch when they are asleep. Many ground birds, such as quails and pheasants, roost in trees. A few parrots of the genus roost hanging upside down. Some go into a nightly state of accompanied with a reduction of their metabolic rates. This shows in nearly a hundred other species, including,, and. One species, the, even enters a state of. Birds do not have sweat glands, but they may cool themselves by moving to shade, standing in water, panting, increasing their surface area, fluttering their throat or by using special behaviours like to cool themselves. Like others of its family the male has elaborate breeding plumage used to impress females. Ninety-five per cent of bird species are socially monogamous. These species pair for at least the length of the breeding season or—in some cases—for several years or until the death of one mate. Monogamy allows for both and, which is especially important for species in which females require males' assistance for successful brood-rearing. Among many socially monogamous species, extra-pair copulation (infidelity) is common. Such behaviour typically occurs between dominant males and females paired with subordinate males, but may also be the result of in ducks and other. Female birds have mechanisms that allow sperm from males to remain viable long after copulation, a hundred days in some species. Sperm from multiple males may through this mechanism. For females, possible benefits of extra-pair copulation include getting better genes for her offspring and insuring against the possibility of infertility in her mate. Males of species that engage in extra-pair copulations will closely guard their mates to ensure the parentage of the offspring that they raise. Other mating systems, including,,,, and, also occur. Polygamous breeding systems arise when females are able to raise broods without the help of males. Some species may use more than one system depending on the circumstances. Breeding usually involves some form of courtship display, typically performed by the male. Most displays are rather simple and involve some type of. Some displays, however, are quite elaborate. Depending on the species, these may include wing or tail drumming, dancing, aerial flights, or communal. Females are generally the ones that drive partner selection, although in the polyandrous, this is reversed: plainer males choose brightly coloured females., and are commonly performed between partners, generally after the birds have paired and mated. In males or females in numerous species of birds, including copulation, pair-bonding, and joint parenting of chicks. Territories, nesting and incubation. See also: Many birds actively defend a territory from others of the same species during the breeding season; maintenance of territories protects the food source for their chicks. Species that are unable to defend feeding territories, such as and, often breed in instead; this is thought to offer protection from predators. Colonial breeders defend small nesting sites, and competition between and within species for nesting sites can be intense. All birds lay with hard shells made mostly of. Hole and burrow nesting species tend to lay white or pale eggs, while open nesters lay eggs. There are many exceptions to this pattern, however; the ground-nesting have pale eggs, and camouflage is instead provided by their plumage. Species that are victims of have varying egg colours to improve the chances of spotting a parasite's egg, which forces female parasites to match their eggs to those of their hosts. Male construct elaborate suspended nests out of grass. Bird eggs are usually laid in a. Most species create somewhat elaborate nests, which can be cups, domes, plates, beds scrapes, mounds, or burrows. Some bird nests, however, are extremely primitive; nests are no more than a scrape on the ground. Most birds build nests in sheltered, hidden areas to avoid predation, but large or colonial birds—which are more capable of defence—may build more open nests. During nest construction, some species seek out plant matter from plants with parasite-reducing toxins to improve chick survival, and feathers are often used for nest insulation. Some bird species have no nests; the cliff-nesting lays its eggs on bare rock, and male keep eggs between their body and feet. The absence of nests is especially prevalent in ground-nesting species where the newly hatched young are. Nest of an that has been parasitised by a., which optimises temperature for chick development, usually begins after the last egg has been laid. In monogamous species incubation duties are often shared, whereas in polygamous species one parent is wholly responsible for incubation. Warmth from parents passes to the eggs through, areas of bare skin on the abdomen or breast of the incubating birds. Incubation can be an energetically demanding process; adult albatrosses, for instance, lose as much as 83 grams (2.9 oz) of body weight per day of incubation. The warmth for the incubation of the eggs of comes from the sun, decaying vegetation or volcanic sources. Incubation periods range from 10 days (in, and birds) to over 80 days (in albatrosses and ). The diversity of characteristics of birds is great, sometimes even in closely related species. Several avian characteristics are compared in the table below. Species Adult weight (grams) Incubation (days) Clutches (per year) Clutch size ( Archilochus colubris) 3 13 2.0 2 ( Passer domesticus) 25 11 4.5 5 ( Geococcyx californianus) 376 20 1.5 4 ( Cathartes aura) 2,200 39 1.0 2 ( Diomedea immutabilis) 3,150 64 1.0 1 ( Spheniscus magellanicus) 4,000 40 1.0 1 ( Aquila chrysaetos) 4,800 40 1.0 2 ( Meleagris gallopavo) 6,050 28 1.0 11 Parental care and fledging. Main article: At the time of their hatching, chicks range in development from helpless to independent, depending on their species. Helpless chicks are termed, and tend to be born small,, immobile and naked; chicks that are mobile and feathered upon hatching are termed. Altricial chicks need help and must be brooded for longer than precocial chicks. The young of many bird species do not precisely fit into either the precocial or altricial category, having some aspects of each and thus fall somewhere on an 'altricial-precocial spectrum'. Chicks at neither extreme but favoring one or the other may be termed. The length and nature of parental care varies widely amongst different orders and species. At one extreme, parental care in ends at hatching; the newly hatched chick digs itself out of the nest mound without parental assistance and can fend for itself immediately. At the other extreme, many seabirds have extended periods of parental care, the longest being that of the, whose chicks take up to six months to and are fed by the parents for up to an additional 14 months. The chick guard stage describes the period of breeding during which one of the adult birds is permanently present at the nest after chicks have hatched. The main purpose of the guard stage is to aid offspring to thermoregulate and protect them from predation. In some species, both parents care for nestlings and fledglings; in others, such care is the responsibility of only one sex. In some species, of the same species—usually close relatives of the, such as offspring from previous broods—will help with the raising of the young. Such alloparenting is particularly common among the, which includes such birds as the true, and, but has been observed in species as different as the and. Among most groups of animals, is rare. In birds, however, it is quite common—more so than in any other vertebrate class. Though territory and nest site defence, incubation, and chick feeding are often shared tasks, there is sometimes a in which one mate undertakes all or most of a particular duty. The point at which chicks varies dramatically. The chicks of the murrelets, like the, leave the nest the night after they hatch, following their parents out to sea, where they are raised away from terrestrial predators. Some other species, such as ducks, move their chicks away from the nest at an early age. In most species, chicks leave the nest just before, or soon after, they are able to fly. The amount of parental care after fledging varies; albatross chicks leave the nest on their own and receive no further help, while other species continue some supplementary feeding after fledging. Chicks may also follow their parents during their first. Brood parasites. Raising a, a., in which an egg-layer leaves her eggs with another individual's brood, is more common among birds than any other type of organism. After a parasitic bird lays her eggs in another bird's nest, they are often accepted and raised by the host at the expense of the host's own brood. Brood parasites may be either obligate brood parasites, which must lay their eggs in the nests of other species because they are incapable of raising their own young, or non-obligate brood parasites, which sometimes lay eggs in the nests of to increase their reproductive output even though they could have raised their own young. One hundred bird species, including,, and, are obligate parasites, though the most famous are the. Some brood parasites are adapted to hatch before their host's young, which allows them to destroy the host's eggs by pushing them out of the nest or to kill the host's chicks; this ensures that all food brought to the nest will be fed to the parasitic chicks. Sexual selection. Main article: Birds have a variety of behaviours, with the tail being perhaps the most famous example of and the. Commonly occurring such as size and colour differences are energetically costly attributes that signal competitive breeding situations. Many types of avian have been identified; intersexual selection, also known as female choice; and intrasexual competition, where individuals of the more abundant sex compete with each other for the privilege to mate. Sexually selected traits often evolve to become more pronounced in competitive breeding situations until the trait begins to limit the individual’s fitness. Conflicts between an individual fitness and signalling adaptations ensure that sexually selected ornaments such as plumage coloration and are 'honest' traits. Signals must be costly to ensure that only good-quality individuals can present these exaggerated sexual ornaments and behaviours. Inbreeding depression. Main article: Incestuous matings by the Malurus coronatus result in severe fitness costs due to (greater than 30% reduction in hatchability of eggs). Females paired with related males may undertake extra pair matings (see for 90% frequency in avian species) that can reduce the negative effects of inbreeding. However, there are ecological and demographic constraints on extra pair matings. Nevertheless, 43% of broods produced by incestuously paired females contained extra pair young. Inbreeding depression occurs in the ( Parus major) when the offspring produced as a result of a mating between close relatives show reduced fitness. In natural populations of Parus major, inbreeding is avoided by dispersal of individuals from their birthplace, which reduces the chance of mating with a close relative. Turdoides bicolor appear to avoid inbreeding in two ways. The first is through dispersal, and the second is by avoiding familiar group members as mates. Although both males and females disperse locally, they move outside the range where genetically related individuals are likely to be encountered. Within their group, individuals only acquire breeding positions when the opposite-sex breeder is unrelated. In birds typically occurs when offspring, usually males, delay dispersal from their natal group in order to remain with the family to help rear younger kin. Female offspring rarely stay at home, dispersing over distances that allow them to breed independently, or to join unrelated groups. In general, inbreeding is avoided because it leads to a reduction in progeny fitness () due largely to the homozygous expression of deleterious recessive alleles. Between unrelated individuals ordinarily leads to the masking of deleterious recessive alleles in progeny. An example of a bird highly specialised in its habitat, in this case in the forests. Birds occupy a wide range of ecological positions. While some birds are generalists, others are highly specialised in their habitat or food requirements. Even within a single habitat, such as a forest, the occupied by different species of birds vary, with some species feeding in the, others beneath the canopy, and still others on the forest floor. Forest birds may be,, and. Aquatic birds generally feed by fishing, plant eating, and piracy. Birds of prey specialise in hunting mammals or other birds, while vultures are specialised. Are animals that are specialised at preying on birds. Some nectar-feeding birds are important pollinators, and many frugivores play a key role in seed dispersal. Plants and pollinating birds often, and in some cases a flower's primary pollinator is the only species capable of reaching its nectar. Birds are often important to island ecology. Birds have frequently reached islands that mammals have not; on those islands, birds may fulfil ecological roles typically played by larger animals. For example, in New Zealand the were important browsers, as are the and today. Today the plants of New Zealand retain the defensive adaptations evolved to protect them from the extinct moa. Nesting may also affect the ecology of islands and surrounding seas, principally through the concentration of large quantities of, which may enrich the local soil and the surrounding seas. A wide variety of, including counts, nest monitoring, and capturing and marking, are used for researching avian ecology. Relationship with humans. Of Since birds are highly visible and common animals, humans have had a relationship with them since the dawn of man. Sometimes, these relationships are, like the cooperative honey-gathering among and African peoples such as the. Other times, they may be, as when species such as the have benefited from human activities. Several bird species have become commercially significant agricultural pests, and some pose an. Human activities can also be detrimental, and have threatened numerous bird species with extinction (,,,, kills and predation by pet and are common sources of death for birds). Birds can act as vectors for spreading diseases such as,,, mycobacteriosis (avian ), (bird flu),, and over long distances. Some of these are that can also be transmitted to humans. Economic importance. The use of cormorants by Asian fishermen is in steep decline but survives in some areas as a tourist attraction. Domesticated birds raised for meat and eggs, called, are the largest source of animal protein eaten by humans; in 2003, 76 million tons of poultry and 61 million tons of eggs were produced worldwide. Account for much of human poultry consumption, though domesticated,, and are also relatively common. Many species of birds are also hunted for meat. Bird hunting is primarily a recreational activity except in extremely undeveloped areas. The most important birds hunted in North and South America are waterfowl; other widely hunted birds include,, quail,,,,, and. Is also popular in Australia and New Zealand. Though some hunting, such as that of muttonbirds, may be sustainable, hunting has led to the extinction or endangerment of dozens of species. Other commercially valuable products from birds include feathers (especially the of geese and ducks), which are used as insulation in clothing and bedding, and seabird faeces (), which is a valuable source of phosphorus and nitrogen. The, sometimes called the Guano War, was fought in part over the control of guano deposits. Birds have been domesticated by humans both as pets and for practical purposes. Colourful birds, such as and, are bred in or kept as pets, a practice that has led to the illegal trafficking of some. And have long been used for and, respectively., used since at least 1 AD, remained important as recently as. Today, such activities are more common either as hobbies, for entertainment and tourism, or for sports such as. Amateur bird enthusiasts (called birdwatchers, twitchers or, more commonly, ) number in the millions. Many homeowners erect near their homes to attract various species. Has grown into a multimillion-dollar industry; for example, an estimated 75% of households in Britain provide food for birds at some point during the winter. In religion and mythology. 'The 3 of Birds' by the, 15th-century Germany Birds play prominent and diverse roles in religion and mythology. In religion, birds may serve as either messengers or priests and leaders for a, such as in the Cult of, in which the of served as chiefs or as attendants, as in the case of, the two who whispered news into the ears of the. In several civilisations of, particularly and, priests were involved in, or interpreting the words of birds while the 'auspex' (from which the word 'auspicious' is derived) watched their activities to foretell events. They may also serve as, as when (Hebrew: יוֹנָה, ) embodied the fright, passivity, mourning, and beauty traditionally associated with doves. Birds have themselves been deified, as in the case of the, which is perceived as Mother Earth by the of India. In religious images preserved from the Inca and Tiwanaku empires, birds are depicted in the process of transgressing boundaries between earthly and underground spiritual realms. Indigenous peoples of the central Andes maintain legends of birds passing to and from metaphysical worlds. In culture and folklore. Painted with design of birds from Birds have featured in culture and art since prehistoric times, when they were represented in early. Some birds have been perceived as monsters, including the mythological and the 's legendary, a giant bird capable of snatching humans. Birds were later used as symbols of power, as in the magnificent of the and emperors. With the advent of scientific interest in birds, many paintings of birds were commissioned for books. Among the most famous of these bird artists was, whose paintings of were a great commercial success in Europe and who later lent his name to the. Birds are also important figures in poetry; for example, incorporated into his, and used a as an erotic symbol in his. The relationship between an and a sailor is the central theme of 's, which led to the use of the. Other metaphors derive from birds; and vulture investors, for instance, take their name from the scavenging vulture. Perceptions of bird species vary across cultures. Are associated with bad luck,, and death in parts of Africa, but are regarded as wise across much of Europe. Were considered sacred in and symbols of virtue in, but were thought of as thieves across much of Europe and harbingers of war in. In, birds, especially, often appear in. See also:,, and Though human activities have allowed the expansion of a few species, such as the and, they have caused population decreases or in many other species. Over a hundred bird species have gone extinct in historical times, although the most dramatic human-caused avian extinctions, eradicating an estimated 750–1800 species, occurred during the human colonisation of,, and islands. Many bird populations are declining worldwide, with 1,227 species listed as by and the in 2009. The most commonly cited human threat to birds is. Other threats include overhunting, accidental mortality due to collisions with or,, pollution (including and pesticide use), competition and predation from nonnative, and climate change. Governments and groups work to protect birds, either by passing laws that and bird habitat or by establishing for reintroductions. Such projects have produced some successes; one study estimated that conservation efforts saved 16 species of bird that would otherwise have gone extinct between 1994 and 2004, including the and. Find more about Birdat Wikipedia's • from Wiktionary • from Wikimedia Commons • from Wikinews • from Wikiquote • from Wikisource • from Wikibooks • from Wikiversity • from Wikispecies The Wikibook has a page on the topic of: • —Dedicated to bird conservation worldwide; has a database with about 250,000 records on endangered bird species. • • from the • • at the • • • • —Searchable online research archive; Archives of the following ornithological journals,, Journal of Field Ornithology, North American Bird Bander, Studies in Avian Biology, Pacific Coast Avifauna, and. • —A free library of videos of the world's birds • •, from the International Field Guides database • —Interactive identification of all UK birds. |
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